Women’s Empowerment in Bangladesh: Contributions of Social Protection Plans (Stipend for Girls’ and Housing Project)
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54536/ajywe.v4i2.4222Keywords:
Conditional Cash Transfer, Housing Project, Social Protection, Structural BarriersAbstract
Social norms and patriarchal cultures in Bangladesh shaped social structures in such a way that worked as an impediment to women’s empowerment over time. Less access to education, early marriage, being confined to household activities, no participation in decision-making, and no strategic life choices etc. were common for women, which goes to the opposite of women’s empowerment. To empower women in Bangladesh, the government has taken several policies where social protection plans play an important role. The present study tried to evaluate two social protection plans: an asset transfer programme (a housing project) designed for both males and females and a conditional cash transfer (a stipend for schoolgirls) intended for females only. The study discussed the empowerment aspects of these instruments in terms of Kabeer’s empowerment framework (resources, agency, and achievements), the transformational features of the instruments, and the success of facing existing structures. Both instruments seem effective in terms of empowering women through the creation of resources, agency, and achievements. Stipends for girls increased enrolment of girls in school and average educational qualifications which helped them to enter the job market and have authority in the family. Ashrayan project helped women to have control in family matters through absolute ownership in assets and increased the average income level of the women beneficiaries. Though these instruments fight against structural barriers, policymakers still need to work more as long-term perceptions still exist as impediments to women’s empowerment and sometimes stakeholders cannot realise the ultimate meaning of empowerment. Policies can be designed to ensure the full authority of women over their resources, and it is essential to monitor the true essence of empowerment. The government may need to implement policies which will ensure not only resources but also the agency of the women. Overall, social protection instruments work effectively to empower women, bringing them out of their discomfort zone with a set of resources. To address deep-rooted structures and encourage a thorough knowledge of empowerment among all stakeholders, however, a concerted effort is needed as the journey continues.
Downloads
References
Ahmed, N., & Ahmmed, F. (2015). Problems and challenges of deserted women in Bangladesh: An observational study. Journal of International Social Issues, 3(1), 1-11.
Alkire, S., & Roche, J. M. (2012). Beyond headcount: Measures that reflect the breadth and components of child poverty. In Global Child Poverty and Well-Being (pp. 103-134). Policy Press.
Anderson, S., & Eswaran, M. (2009). What determines female autonomy? Evidence from Bangladesh. Journal of development Economics, 90(2), 179-191.
Antonopoulos, A. 2003. Social Protection for Women. United Nations. https://www.un.org/en/chronicle/article/social-protection-women [Accessed 14 Jun. 2023].
Arends-Kuenning, M., & Amin, S. (2001). Women’s capabilities and the right to education in Bangladesh. International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, 15, 125-142.
Arslan, A., Beltchika, N., Cavatassi, R., Md Shahriar Islam, M., Kabeer, N., Sun Kim, D., ... & White, H. (2022). Evidence Review on the Effectiveness of Interventions Promoting Women’s Empowerment in Developing Countries.
Asadullah, M. N., Savoia, A., & Mahmud, W. (2014). Paths to development: Is there a Bangladesh surprise?. World Development, 62, 138-154.
Ashrayan Book. 2023. available from http://www.ashrayanpmo.gov.bd/site/publications/383855cc-cd5b-47cf-a5ef-f55e9ad5e690/- [Accessed 1 Jul. 2023].
Barrientos, A. (2008). Social transfers and growth: A review. Available at SSRN 1538926.
Barrientos, A., & Hulme, D. (2009). Social protection for the poor and poorest in developing countries: reflections on a quiet revolution: commentary. Oxford development studies, 37(4), 439-456.
Barrientos, A., & Hulme, D. (Eds.). (2016). Social protection for the poor and poorest: Concepts, policies and politics. Springer.
Batliwala, S. (1994). The meaning of women’s empowerment: New concepts from action. Population policies reconsidered: Health, empowerment and rights, 17, 127-138.
Batliwala, S. (2007). Taking the power out of empowerment–an experiential account. Development in practice, 17(4-5), 557-565.
Besley, T., & Coate, S. (1995). The design of income maintenance programmes. The Review of Economic Studies, 62(2), 187-221.
Buller, A. M., Peterman, A., Ranganathan, M., Bleile, A., Hidrobo, M., & Heise, L. (2018). A mixed-method review of cash transfers and intimate partner violence in low-and middle-income countries. The World Bank Research Observer, 33(2), 218-258.
Busetto, L., Wick, W., & Gumbinger, C. (2020). How to use and assess qualitative research methods. Neurological Research and practice, 2(1), 14.
Conway, T., De Haan, A., & Norton, A. (2000). Social protection: New directions of donor agencies.
Copestake, J. (2008). Multiple Dimensions of Social Assistance: The Case of Peru’s ‘Glass of Milk’Programme. The Journal of Development Studies, 44(4), 545-561.
Cornwall, A. (2008). Unpacking ‘Participation’: models, meanings and practices. Community development journal, 43(3), 269-283.
Cornwall, A., & Brock, K. (2005). What do buzzwords do for development policy? A critical look at ‘participation’,‘empowerment’and ‘poverty reduction’. Third world quarterly, 26(7), 1043-1060.
Dercon, S. (Ed.). (2005). Insurance against poverty. Oxford University Press, USA.
Devereux, S., & Sabates-Wheeler, R. (2004). IDS Working Paper 232. Transformative social protection.
Duflo, E. (2012). Women empowerment and economic development. Journal of Economic literature, 50(4), 1051-1079.
FAO (2015). Social protection and women’s empowerment. RURAL TRANSFORMATIONS - Information Note #2.
Fatema, N. (2019). Women empowerment or gender equality: which one should come first for augmenting satisfaction and performance of female employees: a study on the ready-made garment sector of Bangladesh. International Journal of Business and Social Research, 9(1), 08-21.
Finance Division. 2023. Finance Division, Ministry of Finance. [online] Available at: https://mof.portal.gov.bd/site/page/32220b73-846f-4a33-b4c0-a6650c918e25/Safety-Net.
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York (Herder & Herder) 1970.
Grosh, M., Del Ninno, C., Tesliuc, E., & Ouerghi, A. (2008). For protection and promotion: The design and implementation of effective safety nets. World Bank Publications.
Hahn, Y., Islam, A., Nuzhat, K., Smyth, R., & Yang, H. S. (2018). Education, marriage, and fertility: Long-term evidence from a female stipend program in Bangladesh. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 66(2), 383-415.
Holmes, R. (2019). Promoting gender equality and women’s empowerment in shock-sensitive social protection. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Holmes, R., & Jones, N. (2010). Rethinking social protection using a gender lens.
Hossain, N. (2021). The sdgs and the empowerment of Bangladeshi women. The Palgrave handbook of development cooperation for achieving the 2030 agenda: Contested collaboration, 453-474.
ILO, (2023). A quiet revolution: Women in Bangladesh. [online] Available at: https://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/comment-analysis/WCMS_234670/lang--en/index.htm.
International Labour Organization (ILO). (2020). Social Protection and Human Rights: An International Guidelines Tool for Transformative Social Protection. Retrieved from https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---europe/---ro-geneva/---ilo-brussels/documents/publication/wcms_849772.pdf
Islam, M. S. (2012). Empowerment of Women through Education in Bangladesh. Society & Change, 6(4), 39-60.
Islam, S. (2016). Feminization of employment and gender inequality of Bangladesh labor market: The case of garment industries. Developing Country Studies, 6(2), 157-168.
Kabeer, N. (1999). Resources, agency, achievements: Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment. Development and change, 30(3), 435-464.
Kabeer, N. (2001). Reflections on the measurement of women’s empowerment.
Kabeer, N. (2005). Gender equality and women’s empowerment: A critical analysis of the third millennium development goal 1. Gender & development, 13(1), 13-24.
Kandiyoti, D. (1988). Bargaining with patriarchy. Gender & society, 2(3), 274-290.
Khandker, S., Pitt, M., & Fuwa, N. (2003). Subsidy to promote girls’ secondary education: the female stipend program in Bangladesh.
Mahmud, S., Shah, N. M., & Becker, S. (2012). Measurement of women’s empowerment in rural Bangladesh. World development, 40(3), 610-619.
Malhotra, A., Schuler, S. R., & Boender, C. (2002). June. In Measuring women’s empowerment as a variable in international development, in background paper prepared for the World Bank Workshop on Poverty and Gender: New Perspectives (Vol. 28).
Mehra, R. (1997). Women, empowerment, and economic development. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 554(1), 136-149.
Mosedale, S. (2005). Assessing women’s empowerment: towards a conceptual framework. Journal of international development, 17(2), 243-257.
Mustafa, A., Islam, M. S., Islam, S., & Khatun, M. (2016). Impact of RMG sector on livelihood change of women employees of Bangladesh. Social and Economic Geography, 2(1), 1-10.
Narayan-Parker, D. (Ed.). (2002). Empowerment and poverty reduction: A sourcebook. World Bank Publications.
Narayan-Parker, D. (Ed.). (2005). Measuring empowerment: Cross-disciplinary perspectives. World Bank Publications.
Nasri, K. (2020). Social Safety Nets in Tunisia: Do Benefits Reach the Poor and Vulnerable Households at the Regional Level? (No. 440). GLO Discussion Paper.
Nazneen, S. (2019). Building strategic relationships with the political elites. Negotiating gender equity in the global South: the politics of, 129.
Parveen, S., 2007. Gender awareness of rural women in Bangladesh. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 9(1), 253-269.
PMO, Ashrayan Project-2. (2023). [online] Available at: http://www.ashrayanpmo.gov.bd [Accessed 10 Jul. 2023].
Rahman, A. (1999). Micro-credit initiatives for equitable and sustainable development: who pays?. World development, 27(1), 67-82.
Rahman, M. M. (2020). The Empowerment of Women in Bangladesh: Not Just Rhetoric. Available at: https://www.isas.nus.edu.sg/papers/the-empowerment-of-women-in-bangladesh-not-just-rhetoric/
Rao, N. (2012). Breadwinners and homemakers: Migration and changing conjugal expectations in rural Bangladesh. Journal of Development Studies, 48(1), 26-40.
Rowlands, J. (1997). Questioning empowerment: Working with women in Honduras. Oxfam.
Sabates-Wheeler, R., & Devereux, S. (2008). Transformative social protection: the currency of social justice. In Social protection for the poor and poorest: Concepts, policies and politics (pp. 64-84). London: Palgrave Macmillan UK.
Sadovnik, A. R. (2017). Qualitative research and public policy. In Handbook of public policy analysis (pp. 443-454). Routledge.
Schurmann, A. T. (2009). Review of the Bangladesh female secondary school stipend project using a social exclusion framework. Journal of health, population, and nutrition, 27(4), 505.
Sen, A. (1993). Capability and well-being. The quality of life, 30(1), 270-293.
Sen, A. (2000). Social justice and the distribution of income. Handbook of income distribution, 1, 59-85.
Sen, A. (2001). The many faces of gender inequality. New republic, 35-39.
Sholkamy, H. (2011). How can social protection provide social justice for women?.
Silver, H. (2007). The process of social exclusion: the dynamics of an evolving concept. Chronic Poverty Research Centre Working Paper, (95).
Soares, F., & Silva, E. (2010). Conditional cash transfer programmes and gender vulnerabilities in Latin America. Case Studies from Brazil, Chile and Colombia, Overseas Development Institute, London, 30-31.
SPIAC-B. (2019). Social Protection To Promote Gender Equality And Women’s And Girls’ Empowerment, Social Protection Inter-Agency Cooperation Board, A joint statement to the 63rd session of the Commission on the Status of Women, https://socialprotection.org/discover/publications/social-protection-promote-gender-equality-and-women’s-and-girls’-empowerment
Staab, S., & Marquez, M. (2023). Making Social Protection Work For Women: Lessons From UN Joint Action. [online] https://jointsdgfund.org/article/making-social-protection-work-women-lessons-un-joint-action
The Business Standard. (2023). More women joining the workforce. [online] Available at: https://www.tbsnews.net/bangladesh/more-women-joining-workforce-607426#:~:text=Female%20participation%20in%20Bangladesh%27s%20labour
United Nations. (2000). Enhancing social protection and reducing vulnerability in a globalizing world. Report of the Secretary General to the Thirty‐Ninth Session E/CN. 5/2001/2.
Vaismoradi, M., Jones, J., Turunen, H., & Snelgrove, S. (2016). Theme development in qualitative content analysis and thematic analysis.
WEF. (2021). World Economic Forum .What Bangladesh can teach and learn about closing the education gender gap. [online] Available at: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/07/bangladesh-girls-education-women-work-world-bank.
White, S. C. (2010, July). Domains of contestation: Women’s empowerment and Islam in Bangladesh. In Women’s Studies International Forum (Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 334-344). Pergamon.
World Bank, (2012). World development report 2012: Gender equality and development. The World Bank.
Young, I. M. (2016). Justice and the Politics of Difference. In Democracy: A Reader (pp. 553-557). Columbia University Press.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Tanvir Hassan Chowdhury
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
